Western Samoa Pictures

Some of the songs are " Materials World: Global Family Portrait", "Man Éating Bugs: Die Kunst und Wissenschaft des Insektenfressen" (the two actually had to eat beetles to write) and "Frauen in der materiellen Welt". Wrote for Fortune, The New York Times, Smithsonian, Technology Review, Vanity Fair, The Washington Post, HBO and the TV show Law and Order.

Kennedy received his PhD in philosphy from Oxford University before moving to the United States to work at the National Archives in Washington. As a J. Richardson Professor of History at Yale University since 1983, Kennedy has also written many important works.

Secular provincialism: The German Anthropological Age of the Empire - H. Glenn Penny, Matti Bunzl

H. Glen Penny is Assistant Professor of History, University of Missouri-Kansas City. He is Aaron and Robin Fischer Assistant Professor of Jewish Culture and Society, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. H. Glenn Penny is Assistant Professor of History, University of Missouri-Kansas City. He is Aaron and Robin Fischer Assistant Professor of Jewish Culture and Society, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

An origins of subductions and coat flags for Samoan vulcanism

Samoan volcanic activity in the South Western Pacific is still a mystery. It is doubtful whether the smelting of the coat is exclusively due to a coat flag, since a part of volcanic activity, here called non-hot spot volcanic activity, contradicts the flag pattern and its rectilinear course of time. In fact, the non-hotspot vulcanism occured up to 740 km away from the Samoan hot spot forecast to the south.

Using fully dyna-mechanical lab reduction modelling and structural tectonics, we show that the near Tonga Kermadec Hikurangi (TKH) production site generates a wide buoyancy at the north plate boundary, which corresponds to the non-hotspot vulcanic activities according to 5?Ma. Based on the reported possible jacket temperature for the surrounding jacket and the Samoan jacket flag, we find that two different geometric phenomena can account for the fusion of the jacket that causes intra-plate vulcanism in the Samoan area.

At 5?Ma we suggest that volcanic activity corresponds to the flag pattern, while afterwards the non-hotspot volcanic activity results from the interplay between the subduction-induced mantelles upwelling (SIMU) and the Samoan coat flag materials, which spreads westwards of the hot spot due to the torsional components of the coat flux caused by the rolling back of the plate. The SIMU is driving the deco-compression melt in the west-facing flag and thus generates the non-hotpot-vulcanism.

It seems that the quasi-linear dispersion of the Samoan volcanos via km,300 km indicates a low coat flag for their ancestry. Tomographic modelling also provides pictures of a low speed low speed low speed round-mounted sea bed that could be a flag coming from the core-sheath interface below the Samoan Isles. In such a deeply shrouded vane could create a localized hot spot from which a periodic volcan on the upper side of the Pacific Ocean's aging Pacific litosphere could develop, creating a timed, gradual, linear, western aging chain of volcanoes4 In this geometric approach, the most recent and prolific volcanic action in Vailulu'u would indicate the current site of the Samoan hot spot5 (Fig. 1a).

Besides the geochemical investigations and the geometrical orientation of the volcanos, a number of geochemical investigations speak in favor of the flag model5,6,7,8. The flag is also confronted with considerable inconsistencies, however, especially the recent appearance of volcanic activity throughout the entire volcanic cycle, which requires an alternate mechanisms to elucidate the tapered volcanic activity in the Samoan area.

There is a significant limitation of the flag scale in Western Samoa, where several volcanos have seen vulcanic activities that are too young to meet the projected ages9 (Fig. 1a). By ?-11 Myrs, these eras are far removed from the age-distance relation foretold by the flag modell, regardless of the supposed disk speed modell or the complete disk movement-modell.

Dateing these volcanos could possibly also give young adolescence, and it is doubtful whether they are compatible with a flag or not. Recently, volcanos have also been operating in the east of Samoa nearer the forecasted hot spot, although still at a significant range of more than 300 km in the western part of Samoa.

Savai'i and Upolu are two prominent example, both of which produce large quantities of volcanic activity after the peak phase, for example compared to the later stages of volcanic activity in Hawaii8. Especially the Savai'i islet has a sign of ??, but until recently has experienced a rejuvenating volcanic activity, the last known outbreak was in 19118.

Well known posterosive volcanic events as seen in classic plum-induced volcanos like Hawaii will probably not account for the rejuvenation of volcanic activity in western Savai'i, as it only stops in Hawaii after the birth of the shields volcano45 Myrs. Therefore, an alternate mechanic to the flag scale is needed to account for the unusually young volcanic activity in the Western Samoan area and possibly the bulky tapering volcanic activity on Savai'i and Upolu.

In order to further complicated the structure of the volcano's ages, Malulu and Rose, two volcanos situated just eastern of today's forecast hot spot, are considered to be older. 8, while the flag scale forecast that these volcanos should not yet be in existence, but will only be constructed in the near or recent past if one takes into account their nearness to today's hot spot.

A further conspicuous characteristic of the Samoan area is the geographical dispersion of the volcanos, some of which are breaking the straight-line tendency (Fig. 1a). It is interesting that Uo Mamae was experiencing vulcanic activities at 0. 97 Ma, similar to the recently tapering vulcanism on Upolu. Also the western Samoa area appears less straight than the well oriented en-échelon volcano paths of the east Samoa8.

Another peculiarity of Samoan vulcanism is that the younger origins of the vulcanic rock generally show a pronounced isotopische Geochemie in comparison to the sign lavas9,11. The proposed mechanism includes several successive shell fin springs7 and lithophospheric bending and crack formation due to the adjacent TKH reduction area combined with molten melts at the basis of the lithosphere8,9,11.

The closeness of the Samoan area to the north end of the TKH subsection area ( (Fig. 1b) actually indicates that subduction-related events could constitute an alternate source for Samoan vulcanism. An initial study of our volcano tectonics restoration (see methods) shows a stage of slope retraction that starts at 10 Ma and accelerates at 5 Ma, in notable agreement with the taper of vulcanism in the entire volcano sequence according to 5 Ma (Fig. 1c,d).

It is known that a quasitoroidal sheath reflux, which is caused by the plate rolling back, occurs around the side plate margins of the production zones12,13,14,15, inclusive the north margin of the Tonga plate16,17. The reflux has a buoyancy element which is generated by the side plate margins in the ditch paralellism, i.e. in an intra plate setting18,19,20.

These asymmetries in the ditch retraction reflect a longitudinal grain when the sheet is lowered and rolled back, which is coincident with a more rapid movement of the sheet subducing the ditch, which leads to more sheet metal being used up in the northern direction, as can be seen in tomographical images21,22. The cladding current, which evolves in such a situation of subductions, can differ from the more frequent symmetric ditch withdrawal cases.

Therefore, we designed fully-dynamical, laboratory-based reduction modelling of the TKH reduction region to simulation of asymmetrical reduction and to quantification of the associated shell flux and the associated upstreaming (SIMU) around the northerly side plate margin (see methods and Fig. 2). As they are positive floatable, the Hikurangi and Chatham plate resists the plate from falling and rolling back, while the Tonga-Kermadec plate section moves quickly to the east further northerly, as there is no other opposition to the movement of the plate than the sheaths.

In addition, we have carried out a structural reconstructive tectonics (see methods) to test whether Samoan volcanic activity may be associated with the SIMU that occurs just off the Tonga plate. From 10 conducted submicroexperiments we present the results of a cast (Fig. 3, 4 and Table S1), which best represents the tectonically reconstructed kinematic of the ditch movement and best corresponds to today's plate geometries in the top shell.

Experiments develop in three stages of subsduction, as is usual in fully dynamics subsduction modelling, as a consequence of the interactions between the plate and the top and bottom shell junction zones imitated by the solid bottom of the tank13,15 (Fig. 3). A first plate-free descent stage with gradual speeding up of the subsduction stage due to the increased bulk of negative buoyancy plate stock immersed in the relatively less tight top shell; (2) a plate-folding stage due to the interactions with the fixed bottom of the shell that simulates the discontinuity of the shell 660 km; (3) a stationary plate-recoiling stage during which the speeds become approximately stable over the course of the period.

In the stationary rolling back period of our models (phase 3 in Figures 3d and 4a,b) the ditch in the northern direction is rapidly retreating, with scaling speeds of up to 8 cm/yr, and it is slowing down to the southern direction to turn around in the centre of the Hikurangi platform (Figure 4c). One of the simplifications of our style is the lack of a lower shell.

In spite of this simplicity, the similarities in the ditch kinematic indicate a good replication of plate sag and side shift in the top cladding. The rapid plate return in the Nordic direction generates a quasi-toroidal top surface current around the northerly plate margin with a buoyancy components (Fig. 3).

The SIMU is found to occur both on the outside of the lower plate and in the jacket key area (Fig. 3c,d), while in the case of the model with even ditch retraction it lies predominantly on the outside of the lower plate23. Asymmetrical plate return of the TKH reduction area thus supports the emergence of a wide SIMU running perpendicular to the trenches with scalable upwards speeds of 1.2 cm/a on average during the stationary plate return period.

Comparing our models with the last 14 Myr of the last 14 Myr of Native Prototyping. Use the plate fold stage (phase 2) of our cast as an approach to the subsduction dynamic that occured between 14-10 Ma, as it simulates the predominance of downward plate movement over minimum plate return (Figs. 1d and 5c).

It is found that the wide SIMU of our production submodel intersects with all intra plate volcanos in the Samoa area that are operating at 0-1?Ma (Fig. 5a). Corelation begins at 5 Ma (Fig. 5b) and the SIMU is smaller for older periods due to the very sluggish plate return (Fig. 1d), which is comparable to the sluggish ditch retraction seen in stage 2 of our cast (Fig. 5c).

The results suggest that the SIMU around the north plate margin of the TKH reduction area is contributing to cause intra-plate volcanic activity in the Samoan area according to 5 Ma, in particular the rejuvenation of volcanic activity westwards of the forecasted hightspot. Samoan hotspots after 5 Ma are remarkable far away from non-Hot Spot volcanos, but can account for the older Samoan volcanic activity (Fig. 5c).

Cause of the melt of the cladding, which eventually results in the development of Samoan volcanic activity, can be debated in the context of earlier research on the TP for the surrounding cladding and the cladding flags. On the basis of the point of contact between the peridotite-solidus curves and the a diabatic thermal profil at a given TP , it is possible to estimate the initial melt penetration in the Samoan area.

Calculate this shell fusion penetration, which is equal to the initial fusion penetration, and use it as a probe to assess the effectiveness of three different geometric sceneries in the production of shell melts (Fig. 6). Assuming a peridotite-solidus graph and an a diabatic thermal grade as obtained in earlier studies24, we use estimates of lower and higher limits of 75 km and 100 km for the LAB below the Samoan area.

A Tp of 1340 aprox. aprox. a C for the environmental jacket (TP(MOR) in Fig. 6 aprox. a ) is used, as shown by estimations on mid-oceanic ribs27, as the deco-compression melt there results from passiv lift without early thermal anomalies. On the other hand, the TP estimations for the Samoan coat vane (TP(PLU) in Fig. 6b,c) lie between 1395 ? and 1524 ?°C28.

The Samoan coat flag is warmer than the environmental coat, as can be anticipated, and the overtemperature is consistent with the TP estimations for other flags29. The Samoan volcanic activity is outside the arch volcanic activity, so the process of hydratation should be minimal.

We conclude, by comparison, that damp soldi erysipelas should be taken into consideration to investigate the adakite-like volcanic activity that arises as a consequence of the interactions between the buoyancy of the shell and the plate, which may carry sediment. This type of volcanic activity does not appear in the Samoan area, but in the trench near the north plate margin of the TKH subsidence area31.

In the SIMU (Fig. 6a), the SIMU takes place in the environmental jacket, i.e. with the smallest TP without thermic anomalies. Beginning of the sheath compression melt in the atmosphere is only possible via this procedure if we consider minimal LAB and maximal TP levels (orange arrows and stars in Fig. 6a).

The Samoan coat vane (Fig. 6b), on the other hand, produces a surplus of warmth that allows the start of fusion in the atmosphere of the branches below the laboratory and thus consequently declares the origins of intra-plate vulcanism in the vicinity of the forecast hot spot. At 5?Ma the Samoan coat flag is the only method causing intra-plate vulcanism, as our structural reconstructed tectonics show that igneous activities always took place near the forecasted hot spot and far from the Tonga northerly subductions sector (Figs. 1d and 5c).

This flag could still be producing Samoan volcanic activity near the forecasted hot spot after 5?Ma. In order to illustrate the non-hot spot vulcanism that occurs westwards of the hot spot after 5 Ma (Fig. 1c), we suggest that the SIMU interact with Samoan coat tail materials to support the deco-compression melt (Fig. 6c). We find that the non-hot-spot volcanic activity was further and further westwards of the Samoan hot-spot between 1-5?Ma (Fig. 1c,d and 5a,b), and suggest that the Samoan coat flag was increasingly drawn from the hot-spot westwards by the torsional components of the subduction-related coat-flux.

A zimuthal plate margin17 around the north plate margin of the Tonga plate has already proposed torsional backflow, consequently with trench-parallel rapid anisotropy in the subplate32. It is known that such a torsional jacket current strongly deformed the coattail and the head of the coattail33, and it was proposed for the Samoan flag using gel chemistry and modeling16,31,34.

Varying the shearing rate at 250 km 19 Deep below the Tonga plate also agrees with the proposal that warm Samoan flag is turned west35,36. If one considers the beginning of the reciprocal effect between the subduction-related torsional components of the jacket current and the Samoan flag at about 5 Ma, the increased flag stock can come from the Samoan flag top, which may have been present at that point in it.

As an alternative, the flag can also be towed from flag tails that lie under the floor of the litosphere. The geodynamical reduction modell shows that the reflux at the north rim of the Tonga plate shows a high buoyancy components. We suggest that this SIMU is the driving force of the de-compression melt in the Samoan flag fabric facing west after 5?Ma.

This is a satisfactory explanation for the appearance of intra plate vulcanism due to the Samoan hot spot at all time and also of non-hotspot vulcanism western of the hot spot according to 5?Ma. In addition, it is in line with the stratigraphy of lava from areas that share a Samoan coat flag source despite the long distances of the tapered lava from the hotspot5.

SIMU's initiation of the de-compression melt in the west facing Samoan flag offers a new variation on intra-plate vulcanism, which can be investigated in other similarly tectonical set-up. One interesting analogy can be reached with the release of the de-compression melt in the Hawaiian flaghead by bulging due to small-scale lithosferic convection, which could generate a volcanic activity that is too young to be ascribed to the Hotspot of Hawaii37.

A different kind of interactions that has been suggested is between the coat flag, mid-oceanic burrs and underground coat river to account for the volcanic activity that takes place far away from the hot spots Réunion38 and Tristan Da Cunha39. If this is the case, the deco-compression melt takes place near the mid-oceanic ridge, where the ocean icy litosphere is thin. They are self-consequent and are powered only by buoyant force, with the exception that at the beginning of the experiment we generate a small disk error of about 3?cm, scaled to 150?km.

It is propelled by the disk's downward lift and its resisting power is determined by the viscosity and air resistivity around the shell, the disk and the lithospherical disk. This fully-dynamical ( "buoyancy-driven") modeling method allows us to study the jacket flux, which results exclusively from the dynamism of panel lowering and rolling back.

The scale follows earlier scale modeling trials using Stokes' settlement laws to describe the speed of the falling plate, as follows: where vi is the sink rate of the plate, C is a constants, ?? is the densitometric constants between the plate and the surrounding shell, 1 is a typical length, gravity is gravity accelerations, and ? is the sublithospherical top shell's dynamical shear viscosity. and ? is the thickness of the sublithospherical top shell.

In order to obtain a dynamical resemblance, our scales use an equal power ratio between our mathematical formula (subscript m) and the mathematical formula (subscript p), so that: this can be transcribed as follows: 5?Ma ), a viscous sugar sirup (sublithospheric topshell equivalent) viscosities ?Ma of 202 ?±COPY7-s at 20 C, and we resize our designs with densities contrast in proportion to the topshell41, with a densities of 3,

Using these numbers we calculated a sublithospherical top shell visibility ?p of ~2. 19 - Pa-s, which is in the area of the 1019-1021- area. A Reynolds number so small as to ensure that the model is in a laminar-symmetrical air stream mode and guarantees the domination of resistance powers by superfluous inertia43.

2?cm to reproduce the sublithospheric shell, with the fixed bottom of the shell corresponding to the 660 km subcontinuity. In this age 100 km is an upper limit for the deepness of the lithosphere-asthenosphere limit (LAB) because of the shallow sea floor at the age of more than 70 km19.46.

Subducing sheet position is 72 cm (scaling to 3,600 km) in trench-parallel and 60 cm (scaling to 3,000 cm) in trenching standard with 34 cm between both side margins of the sheet and the side walls to minimize side-wall effects. Bottom and side of the subducing plates are free and represent a mid-oceanic burr or strike-slip error that provides insignificant drag against subducing ocean icons.

For the quantification of the top sheath flux generated by plate lowering, we use a stereo Particle Image Velocimetry (sPIV) technology, which allows to calculate the 3 envelope velocimetry velocities in a single level (3?C). Glucosyrup layers that simulate the top coat are coated at random with 20-50 polymethylmethacrylate-rhodamine-B-phosphorescence particulates, which are lit with a 5. 5 cm deep horiz. 5?cm (275?km).

Dual high-resolution camera (2,046 .046 pixels) above the camera allows the calculation of the lateral speed range in the chart area.

Such artifacts should not be taken into consideration in the interpretation of the shell fields. There are two other camera systems that allow you to view the plate from one side, which allows you to see the plate shape from the front (mantle wedge) and the plate shape along the dig.

There is an extra digital imaging system above the board to capture images when the beam is not emitted to capture images in the card mode in which the passives placed on the board can be seen. Then we chose a cast that best reproduced the kinetics of ditch movement and sheet geometries at the Tonga Kermadec Hikurangi subsection site in order to explore the results that focus on the sheath flux around the north side platemarg.

Included in the package was a mapping of the TKH Rift, Pacific Subduction Plates, Samoan Volcanos, Hikurangi Plateau and Chatham Ascent. In addition, a packet of information was used1, 56, 57, 58 to determine the site of today's Samoan hospital. In the past, the forecasted positions of the above mentioned geologic characteristics were then restored using the Matthews et al. 52 and Indo-Atlantic Movement hotspot Ref. frames as references59.

Within this framework, the Samoan hot spot is moving gradually south between 10-0?Ma (