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Prehistorical settlement system in Eastern Tutuila, American Samoa, by Jeffrey T. Clark and David J. Herdrich, P 147-186

Roger Green, Janet Davidson and co-workers conducted comprehensive archeological research in West Samoa in the 1960' (Green and Davidson 1969a, 1974). Further research in West Samoa was conducted in the 1970' by a research group led by Jesse Jennings (Jennings et al. 1976; Jennings and Holmer 1980).

Early archeological work on the East Isles forming American Samoa (a US territory) was mainly surveying (Buck 1930; Kikuchi 1963, 1964; Ladd and Morris 1970; Kikuchi et al. 1975; Silva and Palama 1975; McCoy 1977; Clark 1980, 1981) with some localized test digs (Emory and Sinoto 1965; Frost 1976, 1978).

Neither of the studies in American Samoa provided systemic local cover and a wide spectrum of archeological datas. Therefore, conclusions of Samoan history have derived almost entirely from the dates of West Samoa (Bellwood 1979; Davidson 1979). The results of this work have led to much more knowledge about the history of the east isles of the island nowadays.

Recent archeological research in American Samoa included our own, especially in the eastern district of Tutuila Island (Clark 1989, 1992; Clark and Herdrich 1988). Emphasis in Eastern Tutuila research was placed on the region's settlements. Therefore, the research largely aimed at a better knowledge of the distributions of pre-historic population across the countryside, the changes in this distributive patterns over the course of history and the systematic relations between different anthropopulations and between these population and their environment.

Aim was to carry out a systematical investigation of the east end of the whole archipelago to get a relatively full view of the division of settlements and the use of lands in two socio-political entities. Supplementary information from minor surveys in other parts of the territory complements that from the east count. Briefly, while most components of the settlements system are uniform between the two archipelagos, there are important disparities.

This study is a better comprehension of the complexities that pre-historic Samoa had. A map of Tutuila with national and regional borders and important geographical places referred to in the text. approx. 317 cm) and precipitous hillsides (only 34 percent of the isle with less than 30 percent gradient; Atlas 1981), burglaries and mudslides, especially after logging, are frequent occurrence.

There are five large groups of volcanoes in Tutuila: In general, the basalt of tutuila originates from the early Pleistocene (McDougall 1985), while the Leone Volcanics may not have evolved until the Holocene (Stearns (1944:1313). There have been no reports of an eruption for the historical time. Most of the buildings are located on these plots today.

Cluster of associated characteristics were usually considered as separate payroll entities and numbered. Discreet and relatively insulated buildings were provided with unique site numbers and, to highlight members of different site types, specialized locations (i.e. altiaa've, stone pits and paths) were also provided with unique site numbers, albeit in the vicinity of other characteristics.

Samoic settlements and models, both perfect and actual, have been debated by several writers based on ethnohistoric, contemporary ethno- - 151 graphical and/or archeological datasets (e.g. Davidson 1969a, 1974c; Holemers 1976b, 1980; Frost 1978; Shop 1982). The Nu'u and the Pitonu'u, which can be interpreted as "village" and "lower village", are two large settlements.

"Every comprehensive housing estate can be described as pitonu'u if it comprises more than one budget group, is designed to have its own identities and is part of an even bigger area. We will group nu'u and pitonu'u as housing estates in this work. It may be archeologically hard to identify the identified habitation signs.

During the widespread occupation of Mt. Olo in the western Mulifanua area'Upolu, Western Samoa, Holmer (1980) found that there were no malaas that correspond to ethnohistoric and ethnographical description, but smaller glades were found that could depict them. When the chieftain's homes cannot be distinguished from other homes, the number of current cases of telecast, if it can be identifiably determined, can be used as an indication of the number of important properties in the area.

There were some that were as large as the size of those who lived in them, others were undistinguishable from apartment buildings, and yet others were minis. In addition to the housing development characteristics, a number of special habitats were selected. Figure 2 shows the main research area of Eastern Tutuila and the location of the main areas covered in the text.

Generally, there were few locations in the lowland areas near the coast and large housing estates; no tiles, stone pits, fortresses or other different site type were found. Table 1 lists the main site categories in the highlands by administrative district and crest, which categorizes the locations according to structure and function.

A map of the east end of Tutuila with general geography and the main locations in the research area are the landmarks of the area. This last living type is made up of individual living quarters. Nevertheless, only the coastlines where prehistorical relics have been found have been numbered. The Fagatele Cove on the northern coastline has historical (probably US military) characteristics, but no unique prehistorical material has been found.

Basaltools were found in Masausi and Sa'ilele in the northern part and in Faga'itua on the southern part. Faga'itua certainly had an early colonisation due to its large cove with a mature cliff and the socio-political importance of the area. From the mouth of the river to the east, the east lobes are slightly higher than most of the bottom of the valleys.

These remnants were allocated two site numbers, one for Aoa nu'u and the AS-21-5 and another for the smaller Fa'alefu nu'u and the west coast (AS-21-6). Many basaltools and ceramic fragments have been found in the east rag along the coast and around the current buildings, and at the back of the vale there are some deserted, probably historical, household-related characteristics.

Excavation in Aoa produces fragments of ceramics, observidian, basalt adze, preform, flake tooling and trash fluff and reveals two main constituents covered by a largely aseptic spoil. This is the only ceramics residence known for Tutuila and the top one is low in potters, obsidian-poor, basaltic and dating from the fifteenth cent.

However, the easterly rag of the basin was not part of the embedding and the old village was along the old bank line and/or the marshes. Traces of pre-historic settlements have also been found in the Onenoa and Maupua coastlines. A peculiarity is an erect basaltic plate (supported by rock in the west), which is flat except for some horizontal rows on the eastside (Gould et al. 1985:4).

This date would indicate an occupancy during the ceramics age in Samoa, but neither the potter's workshop nor the associated observidian was retrieved from the site. At ?lao one can clearly see that in the last 3000 years a sump of mangroves in a southerly side dale has turned into a contemporary one.

In the highlands there is only one large village on the crest peaks in the main research area, on the Lefutu crest in eastern Vaifanua. As all but the very small burr peaks in the districts of East Vaifanua and S?'ole have been measured, there are no other such locations in this area, although in other districts of East Tutuila housing areas with burr peaks have been found.

An occasionally perceptible ravine leads along the east crest to and through the area. Four Tia'ave are located at striking points of the mountain range that leads from the northern coastline to the town. A number of Basaltwerkzeuge, a number of flocs and four wearable millstones were distributed over the area.

Housefoundations are low, approximately round to round shaped with large basaltic (sometimes coral) kerb stones, partly paving with basaltic and cobblestone. Situated at the northernmost end of the estate, while another extraordinarily large base (almost 300 m2) is located at the southernmost end of the building and it can also be a fanal telefoundament.

Frozen came to the conclusion that (a) Lefutu was an insulated and entrenched haven; (b) it was a period of occupying; and (c) it marked the appearance of wars on Tutuila in the twelfth and fortiori. Lefutu was a permanent mountain town. Several of the apartments were constructed on an avenue, but they seem to be after leaving the building.

Separating the settlement remnants on the three crest treetops was considered adequate to ensure a distinct plot number. The durability and diversity of the remnants at all these locations shows in any case clearly more than a short-term manning. There are seven other small settlements found on the mountain ranges and hillsides, five in East Vaifanua and two in S?'ole.

They comprise groups of two to five building bases or storeys and may not have been permanently occupied areas. Outside East Vaifanua and S?'ole only two other settlement are known for Eastern Tutuila: Alava and Fa'iga Ridges in Ma'oputasi County (AS-25-1) and West Vaifanua (AS-24-2).

It was Kikuchi (1963:68) who told of a succession of - 161 trenches on the mountain crest, but not in the immediate neighbourhood of the settlement, which he considered an "abandoned interior village" (1963:42). This data, together with the existence of prehistorical and historical material at the site, as well as Kikuchi's (1963:43) information, suggest that the site was squatted in the latter part of the pre-history and early historical period.

Briefly, there is much proof that the Fa'iga Ridge remnants are more of a pre-historic village than a monument. In our polls, another 62 tia'ave were found in eastern Tutuila, and in 1988 four more were found in Tataga-matau by Best et al. (1989), increasing the overall number to 76 in Tutuila.

Each eastern Tutuila structure has an earthy filling and a number of beams, - 162 or projection that form the circumference. It is so dominating that it is possible to successfully forecast from the topographical situation where such locations can be found. So far very little has been questioned about Sua, but given the existence of six tia'ave in the small area under study, it seems very likely that Sua also contains a large number of these locations.

However, the Ridge-Top-Tia'ave of uppolu (.e.g. Davidson 1974b) have a similar design as in eastern Tutuila. Though none of the Eastern Tutuila tia'ave was dating, Davidson (1974c:243) suggested that such buildings in West Samoa were belatedly prefabricated. Holmer's (1976a) excavation of an Mt Olo ia'ave radio -carbon data produce on wood coal near the basis of the 270 110 B.P. and 440 100 B.P. pattern, which together indicate a building period since the beginning of the A. D. 1500.

It seems that it is a matter of relatively later prehistorical structure in this work. Investigations in eastern Tutuila identified seven locations with defence features: an insulated shallow trench; three (possibly four) tia'ave-defensive trench complexes; and three highlands fortifications, two of which may be part of a singular group. Le'aeno lies at the interface of three districts and hosts a large defence system, one (AS-23-10) connected to the main summit (290 metres above sea level) and the other (AS-21-35) to the second summit (approx. 260 metres above sea level) about 155 metres to the north-east.

Situated in the immediate vicinity of the intersection of three trendy districts of the West district. Exact extension of the terrain has not yet been defined, nor are the function of all characteristics, but it is clear that Tataga-matau was not just a large grave.

In another part of western Tutuila, Kikuchi (1963:68) announced a flatland ensemble of rock ditches over two meters in depth and unidentified length for the T?funa area, observing that the site could be prehistoric, as informers alleged, or characteristics that were excavated to defend an airfield during World War II.

Examinations to date in West Samoa have not identified any collieries. In Tutuila, however, Tataga-matau, in the west district, has long been known as a large mines. Nine new basaltic mines have been found as a product of our research in Eastern Tutuila. At the Usi Ridge, which stretches northwards from the Le'aeno summit, there is a small AS-23-12 containing four levels of flocks and pre-forms located next to and at the upper end of a Tia'ave.

At the southeast crest that leads to the Asiapa summit, there is a basin of AS-22-31 (basalt quarry) consisting of three thick layers of flocs and some pre-mould. At the northwestern side of the Lauagae Ridge's summit, at the northeastern tip of Tutuila, is a quarrying area characterized by a thick web of flocs, - 166 with some pre-forms and preformfragments (AS-21-100).

It seems that the amount of proven bassalt produced for ?lega is exaggerated for the people of this small canyon. You can find the biggest stone pit in East Tutuila at Fagas? on the north-central-coastline. However, as already mentioned, Tulauta was a housing estate. We have not found a prehistorical stone pit after several experiments (and regardless of Kennedy (1989)).

All we can assume is that the rubble from these surgeries is what Brophy thought was mining before. In Tutuila at least, these places show that basaltic mining was more frequent than previously assumed (Grün 1974a: 141). Old roads were recounted for Western Samoa in the shape of paving or notched roads, elevated roads and submerged roads (Davidson 1974c; Holmer 1976b).

Likely specimens of all these species were found in eastern Tutuila. Some other places have been found in small numbers and are of little or no importance for prehistorical settlements. It' s clear that there are plenty of basic equipment and debays all over the isle. It is also generally coherent with that of Green (1974b) from Western Samoa, with the most striking differences being a lower display of Type II ads and a significantly higher proportion of Type III ads in Tutuila.

In West Samoa this is in clear contradiction to the relatively low use of fluff moulds (e.g. Green and Davidson 1969a, 1974; Jennings et al. 1976; Jennings and Holmer 1980). Flocs of trash are widespread at locations in eastern Tutuila, but relatively uncommon in Upolu. Several hundred flocs were found during excavation in the cities of Tulauta (Gould et al. 1985) and in Tutuila in the West at M?l?ata (Ayres and Eisler 1987) and Leone Valley (analysis in work by Clark).

As is the case throughout Samoa, all flocs and seeds are very small. Archeological evidence from Western Samoa lead to the observations of Greene (Terrell 1969:168; Greene 1974a: 148) that observidian in significant amounts is associated with ceramics and seems to keep this patterns in Tutuila. Nevertheless, it is the only known ceramics residence in Tutuila.

We will briefly discuss other patterns of settlements in Samoa before moving on to a debate on the eastern Tutuila settlements system. Research by Green and Davidson (1969a, 1974) and fellow researchers found that several areas in the interior of Western Samoa were occupied, some of which were used for living and cultivating for at least 2000 years.

These areas had a fairly steady spread of housing from the coastline to the interior. To put it briefly, the pre-historic patterns of settlements in Western Samoa were somewhat different, often scattered across the countryside, but sometimes relatively concentrated. Registered remnants mirror a widely scattered village with households and large settlements.

In the remnants, we do not struggle with Holmer's identifiers of housing or with his argument for a certain cluster formation, as they are mirrored in his identity of "residential districts". However its equation of all habitation districts with pitonu'u is doubtful. The extension of the remnants of Mt. Olo, from the coastline to the interior, may represent more than one Nu'u, and it is likely that the "residential stations" are not all different entities and certainly not all single Pitonu'u.

In Tutuila, the rareness of the gentle slopes of the plateaus largely excludes the scattered inner settlements found in Western Samoa. Although there has been no systematical investigation of T?funa Plan, the east part of the Kikuchi Plains, Frost and the writers have been explored, and no large settlements have been found.

Most of the plains to the east are very craggy, with volcanos in some areas and thin ground elsewhere, and there are no creeks. It is unlikely that this area was a scattered pre-historic village similar to the one in Western Samoa. In the Tualatai plains, where the ground is lower and brooks are present, the probability of scattered settlements is much higher.

We assume here that ground fecundity and available waters were important factors for the scattered settlements in Tutuila. Tutuila in the east was largely limited to the lowland in the many small dales and coastlines or on some wide mountain ridges in the highlands. The settlements in the dales probably began on the coastline, but spread out over the bottom of the dale as the populations increased.

But even if the village was scattered, the small dales made the homes the farthest from the water. When the subaeriel was developing, man's settlements were scattered across the lower and central parts of the hills. However, at some point the population of the vale moved away from the scattered population of the lower and central dales and was more strongly nuclearized in today's Nu'u by Aoa and Fa'alefu.

Probably the higher valleys were always a region of scarce settlement, but intense cultivation. The resident population in the highlands was much smaller. There is ambiguous proof of insulated highland homes; it is not clear whether insulated housing is permanently or temporarily - 173 homes that are used at work in the plantation or when collecting nature's resource.

When they are present, they are relatively scarce and it is not yet certain that they are places of prehistory. It has been possible to identify small housing estates of a few buildings, but such estates are not usual given the extent of the area studied. There are even fewer large housing areas on the Nu'u or Pitonu'u plain.

There is only one such site, Lefutu, in the two east provinces. On the other side of these provinces, another village was found on the Fa'iga crest (Old Vatia), and the Alava crest is probably also a town. There are other large highland communities found on long, wide and shallow ridges beyond East Vaifanua and S?'ole County, although there are very few such areas in East Tutuila.

Both Lefutu and'?lava seem to have been inhabited from the last few hundred years of prehistory to early history, with the population finally migrating to the water. It is believed that in western Tutuila the high valley at Malae'imi and A'oloaufou and on the small plain just south of A'oloaufou helped large colonies, but even in these areas the population would have been significantly limited compared to the scattered colonies of western Samoa.

Davidsson (1969a:69) argued that when "star mound and other specialized sites" are most often associated with neighborhoods rather than acting as isolation zones, their existence can be useful communal-marks. Even though the timeline is fairly short, tia'ave seem to be belatedly prefabricated, and the Eastern Tutuila site gives no cause for questioning this notion.

In summary, Davidson (1974c:225-7) divides small hills/platforms from large hills, where large hills with a length of over 30 meters are marked, although smaller ones are contained due to their height of over three meters. Big hills do not appear in West Samoa until the eleventh AD.

No small hills/platforms or large hills were found in eastern Tutuila. At T?funa of Western Tutuila 10 high "platforms" were recorded - 175, although some of them were severely disrupted and some were solely information base, which were corrupted before Kikuchi's arrival (Kikuchi 1963; Frost 1978; Clark 1980).

One more peculiarity already mentioned for Western Samoa but not yet known in American Samoa is the elevated edge around u wwww. uw. uw. u uw. www. westsamoa.com, a large mine furnace used to roast the root of wwww.org (Cordyline fruticosa). Some of the notified areas have been provisionally designated as mines for the storing of foodstuffs for the banana industry or for the storing and fermenting of breadfruits (masi pits).

Davidson's observations that the lack of around u-um. wwww. samoa is a surprise considering that it is "the only relatively large and periodic mine characteristic that can be reliably detected in Samoa" (Davidson 1974c:238). Sometimes in Samoa and throughout the entire area, fortifications were built on shallow soil, but were more often highlands.

Archeologists have described many defences and fortifications for West Samoa (Buist 1969; Golson 1969; Green 1969; Scott and Green 1969; Scott 1969; Davidson 1969b, 1974a, 1974c). Most of the information about Hochlandforts comes from the large Luatuanu'u compound, probably dating back to the mid-1000 A.D. (Scott and Green 1969:208).

In Tutuila, the defences are similar to those of Western Samoa. Looking at the two fortresses of Le'aeno as a whole, together with the tiles'ave and the neighbouring basin of basalts, one sees a very large ensemble with similarities to Tataga-matau, but not so large (especially in the degree of basaltic exploitation).

These places were probably used by humans in all regions in periods of clash with the other regions, other Samoan islands or perhaps Tongeren, instead of as fortresses used in pure territorial wars. Defence complexes can best be found on any of the main summits on Tutuila, and we would await the greatest fortresses to be found on the highest summits on the borders of two or more ridge.

Now it is obvious that valuable ressources - i. e. observidian and base - have been shared between the Samoa archipelago and beyond. It also seems that Tutuila was an important, if not the resource for these ressources. These observations are in line with the wealth of basaltic implements, flocs and stone pits on Tutuila compared to West Samoa.

AS-21-5 archaeological evidence indicates that the use of observidian increases with decreasing use of base. There are several small collieries in Tutuila, which indicate that nu 'u or small groups of nu 'u are exploited locally. Although Tataga-matau was the main distributor of commercial base, it was not the only one.

Main objective of the archaeological projects in eastern Tutuila was to obtain information about the prehistorical settlements system that prevailed in Tutuila. Eastern Tutuila surveys have added 176 new locations to American Samoa's inventories. Furthermore, the research resulted in new interpretations of important locations already announced in Tulauta, Maupua, Lefutu, Fa'iga and Mt'Alava and provided important new information on the allocation, design and operation of tia'ave.

The comparison of archeological datasets from Samoa in the US and in the West shows interesting contrasts and commonalities. The majority of the site type known for West Samoa are now known for Samoa. Other prominent absentees of Samoa are the Great Household Hill and the t? Other prominent absentees of Samoa are the Great Household Hill and the t? Other prominent absentees of Samoa are the Great Household Hill and the t? environment. Due to the topographical conditions, the inner settlement on Tutuila is less extended than in West Samoa, and the large scattered settlement is not yet known for Tutuila.

Between Tutuila and West Samoa a different focus was found in the use of rock implements, which is mirrored in the number of mines and the increased use of fluff implements. The geomorphologic changes in the plains of West Samoa still need to be recorded, but we believe that significant changes are frequent.

Further research on the marine levels of the islands is ongoing and will illustrate the relation between man and the world. After all, research in Eastern Tutuila has provided ample proof of the hitherto unimagined sophistication of the island's archeological records.

Since only a part of Tutuila has been interviewed so far, a lot of information is still open. Archeological research carried out on the basis of the information presented here has been financed by the Historic Preservation Office, Department of Parks and Recreation, US Samoa Government, Pago Pago; McConnell Dowell Constructors Ltd.

He was assisted by Stan Sorensen, Historic Preservation Officer for Samoa, USA. Solem and Wright conducted basaltic analysis. Office for the Preservation of Monuments, Government of Samoa, USA. An atlas of Samoa. U.S. Office of Coastal Zone Management, Government of America Samoa Government und Department of Geography der Universität von Hawaii.

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Samoa before 1840. Upolu, in R. C. Green und J. M. Davidson (Hrsg.), Archäologie in Westsamoa, Band II. Specialised places in the High Falefa Valley, in R. C. Green and J. M. Davidson (ed.), Archeology in Western Samoa, Volume II. samoanic structure remnants and habitation pattern, in R. C. Green and J. M. Davidson (ed.), Archeology in West Samoa, vol. II.

The Prehistory of Polynesia, by Samoa and Tonga, in J. D. Jennings (ed.). This is Margaret Mead and Samoa: Abstract of archeological investigations on Tutuila Island American Samoa. Archeological investigations on Tutuila Island, American Samoa. Provisional research: Archeology in Western Samoa, 1957, in R. C. Green and J. M. Davidson (ed.), Archeology in Western Samoa, Volume I. Bulletin 6.

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Green, R. C. and J. M. Davidson, (ed.) 1969a. Archeology in Western Samoa, vol. I. Bulletin 6. Descriptions and classification of Samoan ads, in R. C. Green and J.M. Davidson (ed.), Archeology in Western Samoa, Volume I. Bulletin 6. Archeology in Western Samoa, Volume II. cogmund complex, in J. D. Jennings and R. N. Holmer (ed.), Archaeological excavations in Western Samoa.

On the way to an aboriginal comprehension of Samoa. Cog Site (Su-Mu-165), in J. D. Jennings, R. N. Holmer, J. Janetski and H. L. Smith (ed.), excavations on Upolu, West Samoa. Olo's interpretation of settlement patterns, in J. D. Jennings, R. N. Holmer, J. Janetski and H. L. Smith (ed.), excavations on Upolu, Western Samoa.

Olo's interpretation of settlement patterns, in J. D. Jennings and R. N. Holmer (ed.), Archaeological excavation in Western Samoa. Archaeological survey of the Manu'a Islands, American Samoa. Sapapapali' i settlement, in J.D. Jennings and R.N. Holmer (ed.), Archaeological excavation in Western Samoa. Excavation on Upolu, Western Samoa. Archeological digs in Western Samoa.

This is a short overview of the archaeological possibilities for Leone, Tutuila Island, Am. Samoa. Office for the Preservation of Monuments, Government of Samoa, USA. Office for the Preservation of Monuments, Government of Samoa, USA. Petrol glyphs in Samoa, USA. Archeological exploration suggested Ta'u port in Fusi and quarry between Fusi and Fagamoto Ta'u island, Manu'a group, Samoa.

A former Polyynesian crew quarters in To' aga, Ofu Island, American Samoa. Archeology in Oceania, 25:1-15. Archeological and ecological study of Olovalu Crater, Tutuila Island, American Samoa. Information for the ferry terminal, Mulifanua, Western Samoa. and D. C. Witter, n.d. Final report on the survey of the Tataga-matau Fortified Quarry Complex, Near Leone, American Samoa.

Office for the Preservation of Monuments, Government of Samoa, USA. The New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, 9:33-54. Additional investigations at the Tataga-matau site, USA. The New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, 12:51-83. `Au'asi Harbor Project ` Au'asi, Tutuila Island, Samoa, USA. Ages and evolution of the volcanoes of Tutuila, Am. Samoa. Origins of modern Samoa.

Enlightenment and some detailed maps of the most important monuments of Savai'i, in R. C. Green and J. M. Davidson (ed.), Archeology in Western Samoa, Volume I. Bulletin 6 and R.C. Green, 1969. Study of SU-LU-41, a large internal fortification, in R. C. Green and J. M. Davidson (ed.), Archeology in Western Samoa, Volume I. Bulletin 6.

Archeology in Oceania, 24:70-4. Archeological exploration suggested coastal and highway improvements, Tutuila Island and Aunu'u Boat Harbor, Aunu'u Island, American Samoa. Archaeological digs at SU-VA-4, R. C. Green and J. M. Davidson (ed.), Westsamoa Archaeological Volume I. Bulletin 6. Samoa: Ground survey of American Samoa. Locations in the highlands of Eastern Tutuila, sorted by earldom and ridge-top on the hillside.